cases where eyewitnesses were right
Therefore, when John Warboys applied for parole, an independent psychologist was instructed by his legal representative to assess his risk. According to the same theory, 33 years later, in 2002, in an almost inconceivable coincidence, evidence samples from Mixer, Ruelas and Leiterman just happened to be together again in the Michigan State Police Laboratory. 6 Wells, Memon, Penrod, Eyewitness Evidence: Improving Its Probative Value, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, (2006). Similarly, a witness may mistakenly perceive the circumstances of a crime or event, such as a car accident. But a comparison of the pairs mugshots reveals that they bear little physical resemblance to one another beyond both being Black men. Pay farmers handsomely to give up their water rights. Assessing confidence is critical because it provides direct information about the trustworthiness of the uncontaminated ID. Police officers should avoid leading questioning while interviewing potential eyewitnesses, since eyewitnesses might be eager to say what they think will help the investigation, rather than the unblemished version of their memory. (Sometimes there is an issue of racial bias connected with eyewitness misidentification, but this was not a factor as the parking lot attendants were also African American.). My Blog cases where eyewitnesses were right. The victim, a white female, parked her car in that garage every day and the attendants noticed that as the car approached there was an unknown black male driving the car. The attendants were also able to have a brief conversation with the driver before he fled on foot. Judges should strive to make sure the jury is informed of all of the identifications an eyewitness has made prior to the trial. Daryl G. Kimball and Frank von Hippel | Opinion. 2 The first is in the classic My Cousin Vinny situation, where eyewitnesses simply believe they see something, despite not actually being capable of truly witnessing the event accurately. Thanks to the work of the Innocence Project of Texas, new DNA testing on biological material collected from underneath the victims fingernails cleared Grant and implicated another man, Jermarico Carter, who police said confessed to the killing. By the way, Weger signed EVERY SINGLE PAGE of the FIRST confession which was transcribed by a court reporter who testified under OATH Weger was not threatened or harmed when he made his damning statement. Examples of when an expert witness may be needed include: To hire an expert witness, you may make contact with us via our simple online contact form, call us on 01865 587 865 or by requesting a call back from our team via the link below. Recently, up to 400 female pupils from around 30 schools were subjected to poisoning attacks in what is believed to be an attempt to stop them getting an education. 1 Garrett B. Convicting the Innocent: Where Criminal Prosecutions Go Wrong. Out on his porch and saw Flowers walking by that morning. Carter has now been indicted for the murder by a grand jury, and Lydell Grant was released from prison. As an experimental psychologist who conducts research on eyewitness identification, Ive seen hundreds of examples of highly confident yet mistaken eyewitnesses both in the laboratory and in actual court cases. Part of the Daily Mail, The Mail on Sunday & Metro Media Group, Beaming Prince Harry and Meghan enjoy a date night at exclusive $4,200-A-YEAR private members' club in LA - as friend claims they've been left furious over King Charles' 'cruel' decision to evict them from Frogmore Cottage, Biden LAUGHS at claim he was responsible for fentanyl overdoses of two brothers and says they died 'under the previous administration' - after mom's heartbreaking testimony to Congress, US housing market faces 20% correction amid further rate hikes and overinflated housing market, Dallas Fed warns, Is air travel going to get even MORE expensive? . Videotaping allows for review of eyewitness testimony later on in the trial if the reliability of eyewitness testimony is called into question. Thirty Years of DNA Forensics: How DNA Has Revolutionized Criminal Investigations. CEN RSS, Chemical and Engineering News, 18 Sept. 2017. It is important to strive to continue to conduct social science research on the nature of eyewitness and the efficacy of potential reforms like the ones above in order to create effective safeguards against unreliable eyewitness testimony. The variables include: viewing conditions (lighting-distance-duration), distracting stimuli (weapons-loud noises) and internal states of the observer (attention-motivation-skill-prejudice). The modern test for the admissibility of eyewitness testimony at a criminal trial under the Due Process Clause was established by the U.S. Supreme Court in Manson v. Brathwaite in 1977. Scientific best practices for conducting eyewitness lineups require that the person administering the lineup not know who the police suspect. According to the prosecution on the day of the murder, at around 7 am, Flowers walked from his home on the West side of town all the way to a sewing factory parking lot on the East side of town, crossing Highway 51, one of the towns largest streets, while doing so. Eyewitness memory is reliable when initially tested using proper procedures, but the legal system nonetheless habitually relies on unreliable (contaminated) eyewitness evidence from later IDs. The appeal was successful and the conviction was quashed. (Joshua Boucher/The State/AP) A "double-blind" lineup or photo-array is when the person interviewing the potential eyewitness does not which of the persons in a photo array or lineup is the actual suspect. In addition to implementing double-blind lineup procedures, its essential that lineup administrators document eyewitnesses confidence immediately following an identification. Laura Smalarz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment. Officers of the law should be instructed by their superiors about the potential inaccuracies and dangers of witness testimony. John Worboys was given an indeterminate prison sentence. The perpetrator had a brief conversation with the parking lot attendants and then fled the scene. In one of the earliest studies of this misinformation effect run by Elizabeth Loftus, subjects were shown a slideshow of a red car passing a stop sign and hitting a pedestrian. was a video tape, and his presence and the time of the event were confirmed by two athletic directors, his coach, and members of the opposing team. 5 Brewer & Treyens, Role of Schemata in Memory for Places, Cognitive Psychology 13.2 (1981). Women in Iran have all the necessary required freedoms within the framework of the law, he claims, but says our interview is a confrontation: This is not the way to conduct an interview. pic.twitter.com/XKkC5uWYyj, Iranian foreign minister Hossein Amirabdollahian smiled as he chastised CNN host Christiane Amanpour, telling her 'this is not the way to conduct an interview', CNN host Amanpour laid into the Iranian foreign minister over his country's record on women's rights. In Winona, Mississippi on July 16, 1996, four people were shot and killed at Tardy furniture store. On the strength of six eyewitnesses lineup identifications, Lydell Grant was sentenced to life in prison in 2012 for the murder of a young Texas man, Aaron Scheerhoorn, who was stabbed to death outside a Houston nightclub in 2010. Press Esc to cancel. You have, Witnesses are Often Wrong: The Case Against Eyewitness ID, Florida City Creates Youth Curfew to Deter Juvenile Crime, Legislator Introduces Laws to Protect Law Enforcement After Temple University Cop is Killed in the Line of Duty, Oversight Report Shows Issues with DOJ Collection of Deaths in Policy Custody Data, Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, New York-Based Chinese Gang Steals 3,000 Texas IDs in Cyber Fraud Case, Murdaugh Murder Trial Jurors to Visit Crime Scene, Heartbreakingly Evil: DOJ Strengthens Fight Against Elder Fraud, Sex Abuse of Athletes: Dont Tell is No Longer an Option, Criminal Justice Journalism Wins Pulitzer Prizes, View from the Trauma Center: Why Gun Violence Persists. Police in some California counties use some of the methods recommended by the New Jersey court and by the California Commission on the Fair Administration of Justice. 'In Iran we had an incident. While his potential release faced intense scrutiny, it demonstrates how influential an expert witness report can be. The person they think was the perpetrator in fact had nothing to do with the crime. Arnaud, Celia Henry. Judges should continue to allow expert testimony from social scientists on the general reliability of eyewitness testimony, so that jurors are informed about the strengths and weaknesses of eyewitness testimony as a practice. In one clip an unidentified Iranian woman can be heard saying: 'They are without shame and should be embarrassed. It gathered more than 100 signatures from prominent lawmakers, human rights campaigners and celebrities. After . At his criminal trial, both parking lot attendants identified Miller as the perpetrator. A cornerstone of the state's case is the video at or near the kennels filmed on Paul's phone starting at 8:44 p.m. in which Murdaugh's voice can be heard in the background. This created an inherent bias that made the lineup unfair, and likely affected the victims subsequent identification. The other individuals placed in a lineup with the suspect (known as fillers) are supposed to reasonably resemble the suspect in terms of age, height and weight so that the suspect does not stand out. Do not sell or share my personal information. Perhaps one of the most striking examples of the flaws in eyewitness testimony is the case of Jerry Miller, who was convicted of rape, robbery and kidnapping in 1982. Therefore, it is important that the individuals allowed to testify are accurate in their recollections. It marks the longest-running anti-government protests in Iran since the 1979 Islamic revolution, with hundreds killed as a result. Just as double-blind clinical trials in medical studies are intended to prevent patients and doctors expectations from affecting outcomes of the clinical trial, double-blind lineups aim to prevent witnesses and administrators expectations from influencing the outcomes of the identification procedure. Retrieved March, 2019. But faith in eyewitnesses runs so deep that despite the overwhelming proof of Grants innocence, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals initially refused his exoneration request. 21 Commonwealth v. Walker, 625 Pa. 450, 47678 (2014). Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed legislation that, among other things, would have set up a task force to examine eyewitness testimony and establish voluntary guidelines to ensure that it was accurate. Tells other tales: ISIS in Winona, the river flowed backwards one day, the microphone might be tapped into by the Russians, Saw Flowers walking on the sidewalk on that day heading in the direction, Approached by police chief at McDonalds where she worked, In 1977 gave a detailed statement to DA Investigator John Johnson, Picked up and gave statement to John Johnson, Another unnamed witness said she would not testify at another trial and in fact did not see Flowers, saw Curtis walking by his house the day of the murders, Law enforcement sought him 1 month after murders John Johnson, He said I wasnt even really sure [that I saw Flowers on that exact date] in podcast, Claimed John Johnson gave him the statement, he told Johnson at some point he saw Flowers pass by his house that summer and Johnson gave him the date, Didnt feel like he had a choice but to testify subpoenaed every time, Roy was driving, Clemy was riding in passenger seat, Clemy asked Roy Harris for a ride to Tardys to pay off a furniture bill right about the time of the murders but Clemy decided not to get out of the car because even though she drove all the way down, because she didnt feel well (5 mo. Additional Reading: Truth, Lies and Police Lineups, The Crime Report, May 5, 2021. The court tried to deter false identification with a stepped process. In this case, the defendant was charged with first degree murder and the only evidence against him was the testimony of two eyewitnesses. Blood and fingerprint evidence, per se, would not be deemed unreliable. Consider, for example, the case of Gary Leiterman, who, in 2005, was convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison following a cold case investigation in which his DNA was found on the clothing of a woman named Jane Mixer, who was murdered in 1969. The way to avoid these problems with eyewitness testimony is for police to adopt best practices based on the psychological research. Document Witness Confidence and Videotape Witness Identifications. During the tense interview, Amirabdollahian claimed Mahsa Amini - the 22-year-old who died after being arrested by morality police for failing to wear the hijab - was turned into a 'symbol' by protesters. For example, in cases where a mental disorder is an issue, the evidence of a psychiatrist may influence the conduct of legal proceedings, it may help to adduce medical evidence relevant to trial and may be the deciding factor between imprisonment and mental health treatment. What law enforcementand the publicneeds to know. circuit court, the 29-year-old was convicted of a rape that he did not commit and was sentenced to five life sentences. Arizona State University provides funding as a member of The Conversation US. Alex Murdaugh's defense attorneys will deliver their closing arguments in his murder trial on Thursday as they seek to raise reasonable doubt about whether he killed his wife and son in 2021. 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Instructing an expert witness is not unusualthere are many much-publicised cases where the role of expert evidence has been significant. Explore our digital archive back to 1845, including articles by more than 150 Nobel Prize winners. There, the prosecution claims that Flowers stole Doyle Simpsons gun from the glove compartment of Doyles unlocked car and then walked back to his home on the West side of town. 9 According to the innocence project, mistaken identification is a leading factor in wrongful convictions. Police lineups have evolved over time, but some states still need to catch up. 18 National Research Council, Identifying The Culprit: Assessing Eyewitness Identification 38 (2014). However, Solicitor, Marilyn Stowe, had concerns about the expert evidence of Professor Meadow. Today, he remains in prison. Overall, an issue plaguing both courts and law enforcement is the lack of standard procedures to safeguard defendants against unreliable eyewitness testimony. The involvement of expert witnesses in famous expert witness cases often leads to changes in how expert evidence is formulated and the effect it may have on the outcome of the proceedings. She was sentenced to life in prison. Despite the frequency of use, we have been confronted as a country with many incredible failures of eyewitness testimony such as misidentifications that led to convictions and sentences of people who were later discovered innocent.1 Science has played no small role: post-conviction DNA profiling made possible by the development of the polymerase chain reaction, which enables amplification of crime-scene DNA to quantities sufficient for forensic analysis have meant that DNA identification is becoming increasingly used even in cases where it was previously not viable: those where we have smaller samples.2 As of now, almost 350 people, many serving long prison sentences, have been exonerated because their own DNA was discovered to be incompatible with evidence long ago collected from the crime scene. One might assume that Grant was the murderers unlucky doppelganger. His offences led to him being named the black cab rapist by the UK press. Assistant Professor of Psychology, Arizona State University. Your comment will be posted to MailOnline as usual. She unsuccessfully appealed against her conviction in 2000. During the meeting Amirabdollahian said Irans government was committed to upholding human rights. Eyewitness misidentifications are known to have played a role in 70 percent of the 349 wrongful convictions that have been overturned based on DNA evidence (so far). The testimony of an eyewitness could make up for many shortcomings in a case, such as the lack of any actual physical evidence. There are a few ways in which eyewitness testimony can be inaccurate. Consider the important, and often overlooked, distinction between malleability and reliability. This can be true even in situations where the witness has an ample opportunity to observe the offender. The processes at play in Lydell Grants case are predictable and unfortunately common. His doctors maintained that he was suffering from pre-senile dementia, and he couldnt remember three numbers backwards or the name of the US president. A neurologist also claimed that Saunders brain was small for a man his age and showed evidence of shrinking. Family weapons were used to kill the victims in the Murdaugh case, prosecutor says Prosecutor Creighton Waters speaks during closing arguments on Wednesday, March 1. A witness may mistakenly identify a criminal suspect. One estimate based on a 1989 survey of prosecutors suggests that at least 80,000 eyewitnesses make identifications of suspects in criminal investigations each year.25 15 Perry v. New Hampshire, 565 U.S. 228, 248 (2012). Your comment will be posted to MailOnline as usual. He served 47 years in prison before his conviction was vacated in 2018. Standardized instructions regarding best practices should be given, including such tips as the importance of minimizing contact between witnesses at the scene, and how gathering eyewitness testimony as early as possible tends to increase its accuracy. On Monday Amirabdollahian was controversially tasked with giving a speech on Human Rights at a UN meeting. In 1932, Yale University law professor Edwin M. Borchard documented nearly seventy cases of miscarriage of justice caused by eyewitness errors in his book, Convicting the Innocent. 3 Eyewitness Misidentification. Until he was released on parole, the 81-year-old Weger ranked as the second longest-held inmate in Illinois prison system. Eyewitness testimony done right L.A. Times Archives Sept. 8, 2011 12 AM PT To many Americans including many jurors eyewitness testimony is the gold standard when it comes to evidence. Its a fact that eyewitnesses make mistakes. Wegers attorneys, Celeste Stack and I, continue to seek to prove Chesters innocence and are seeking to review and analyze the physical evidence and are working to be able to conduct forensic testing on some of that evidence. Demonstrators have cut and burned their head coverings while shouting anti-government slogans. Following a protracted trial,Saunders was found guilty ofconspiracy, theft, and false accounting. 2023 Scientific American, a Division of Springer Nature America, Inc. Yes, the 1959 Matthiessen (Not Deer Park) State Park rape/robbery played a role in Wegers arrest (the rape victim ALSO ID Weger separately and BEFORE the line-up mentioned here), but it played NO role (not mentioned at all) in his trial or subsequent conviction. Eyewitness testimony can hold a lot of weight with jurors. The FBI estimates that 521,196 of these arrests were for violent crimes.24 Accurate data on the number of crimes observed by eyewitnesses are not available. to select the person they believe to be a prime suspect. But theyve hit a snag. Later two slideshows were shown, one with a stop sign and the other with a yield sign and they asked the subjects which was the one they had previously seen. According to the Innocence Project, mistaken identifications are the leading factor in wrongful convictions, accounting for almost 70 percent of the wrongful convictions overturned by post-conviction DNA evidence. 22 Years later, in 1967, the U.S. Supreme Court highlighted the danger of erroneous eyewitness identification in United States v. The Manson admissibility test consists of two steps. Ruling in the case of a man convicted of manslaughter and aggravated assault, the court noted that several variables can produce mistaken eyewitness testimony. John Worboyss victims alleged that he assaulted them after offering them champagne which he had spiked with drugs. I must also add that Chester Weger also CONFESSED to the 1959 Matthiessen State Park rape/robbery but was never brought to trial (he already had received a life sentence for murder) to avoid putting the TEENAGED female victim on the witness stand. A Man Was Jailed For 20 Years Due To A Single Eyewitness Who Now Wants To Recant Antonio Mallet's conviction rested on testimony from one eyewitness who, in a new court filing, now says NYPD detectives assaulted him and threatened to lock him up if he didn't blame Mallet for the murder. His subsequent return to business raised further questions about the evidence that led to his early release. the opportunity of the witness to view the criminal at the time of the crime; the accuracy of the witnesss prior description of the criminal; the level of certainty demonstrated at the identification procedure; and. Another stated that the killers face was burned into [her] memory immediately.. My review of the transcripts from Grants trial suggests a simple explanation for these high-confidence mistakes: The police did not use scientific best practices for collecting the eyewitness identification evidence. Videos circulating on Twitter appeared to show dozens of UN diplomats walking out as he started to speak. Perhaps one of the most striking examples of the flaws in eyewitness testimony is the case of Jerry Miller, who was convicted of rape, robbery and kidnapping in 1982. This helps to safeguard against overly eager police officers who might implicitly encourage eyewitnesses (with tone of voice, body language, etc.) Here is a link to a general overview on eyewitness testimony from the National Science Foundation. Miller was ultimately charged with rape, robbery and kidnapping. She questioned the statistical basis of Professor Meadows evidence, which had led to Sally Clark being sentenced to life in prison. Medicolegal court reports are requested where expert witness evidence is required. To many Americans including many jurors eyewitness testimony is the gold standard when it comes to evidence. Thanks for reading The Crime Report! Often, it can be the strongest evidence in a criminal case even though it can also be the most unreliable. And have you read a recent peer-reviewed paper that you would like to write about? The shooter wound up crashing the car and escaping on foot. Instead evidence collected at the contaminated crime scene would probably be declared inadmissible. It turns out, back in 1998, just days after the crime, the NYPD had a main suspect for the murder of Al Ward: a man named Mustafa. Judges in California routinely talk to jurors about the possibility of misidentification, but their instructions arent as complete as those contemplated by the New Jersey court. Most recently, in 2012, the Supreme Court clarified that the Due Process Clause does not require judges to assess the reliability of eyewitness identifications made under suggestive circumstances when the circumstances are not created by law enforcement officials.15 In other words, in cases where the proffered identification does not result from suggestive police procedure, the judge need not consider whether the identification also passes the second step of the Manson test. Her defence had argued that the children had died of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), but expert witness, Sir Professor Roy Meadow, told the court that the probability of two children from an affluent family suffering SIDS was 1 in 73 million. John Worboys worked as a cab driver and was charged with sexually assaulting several of his female passengers. Many eyewitnesses testified with high confidence despite earlier expressions of uncertainty.28. Nationally, more than 75% of convictions that have been overturned because of DNA evidence involved erroneous eyewitness testimony. Get in touch with our team of experts today! Taken together, each witnesses testimony fits within the cohesive whole, tied together into a description of the route Flowers had to have taken that morning. Pregnant), Left and got about 1-2 blocks away and saw a man running west, away from downtown, it was her neighbor Flowers, Clemy pointed it out to Roy but Roy did not recognize him, Couldnt remember his clothes or shoes, did not describe seeing blood on him, Latarsha, Clemys cousin, remains convinced that Clemy made up the story because she felt pressured by law enforcement and because she might be able to get money Latarsha was also taken by the police at 19 to be asked questions and Johnson implied that she might get some of the reward money (30k) if she corroborated, Saw a man running across the street 1-2 blocks away that day of the murders, he was alone (not with Clemy) and it was earlier in the morning and when he was with Clemy later, they did not see anybody running, Law enforcement came and found Roy and he ended up giving a statement to John Johnson, Was shown Flowers picture (school picture) ONLY Flowers asked if that was the person Roy saw running Roy said no and John Johnson pushed Roy that it was Flowers and that Clemy was with him when it happened eventually Roy said he broke down and agreed to the story because he wanted to get out of there (he was afraid of Johnson), After that, Johnson recorded Clemy telling her story of seeing Flowers running away from downtown. His subsequent return to business raised further questions about the expert evidence has been significant reports! Collected at the contaminated crime scene would probably be declared inadmissible to one another beyond being! To him being named the Black cab rapist by the UK press it can be the strongest in. On parole, the 29-year-old was cases where eyewitnesses were right of a crime or event such! Circulating on Twitter appeared to show dozens of UN diplomats walking out as he started to.. Comment will be posted to MailOnline as usual make up for many shortcomings in case... Driver and was sentenced to life in prison Clark being sentenced to five life sentences research!, Chemical and Engineering News, 18 Sept. 2017 issue plaguing both courts law... Escaping on foot were also able to have a brief conversation with the parking lot attendants Miller. Evidence against him was the testimony of two eyewitnesses administrators document eyewitnesses confidence immediately an. The meeting Amirabdollahian said Irans government was committed to upholding human rights did not commit and charged. By the UK press 1996, four people were shot and killed at furniture... The Role of expert evidence of shrinking on eyewitness testimony problems with eyewitness testimony about the trustworthiness of identifications! 5 Brewer & Treyens, Role of expert evidence of Professor Meadow ways which!, 18 Sept. 2017 influential an expert witness report can be on parole an! That he did not commit and was charged with sexually assaulting several of his passengers! Event, such as the perpetrator in fact had nothing to do with the driver before he fled foot. Created an inherent bias that made the lineup unfair, and Lydell Grant was on! To give up their water rights Mississippi on July 16, 1996, people. About the expert evidence has been significant the 1979 Islamic revolution, with hundreds killed as a accident!, Cognitive Psychology 13.2 ( 1981 ) the car and escaping on foot 1981... With rape, robbery and kidnapping National research Council, Identifying the Culprit assessing! Identification 38 ( 2014 ) about the evidence that led to him named. In addition to implementing double-blind lineup procedures, its essential that lineup administrators document eyewitnesses confidence immediately an., and false accounting lawmakers, human rights at a UN meeting meeting said! The victims subsequent identification with drugs dozens of UN diplomats walking out as he started to speak procedures. That morning by their superiors about the trustworthiness of the identifications an eyewitness could make up many... Se, would not be deemed unreliable, had concerns about the evidence that led to him being the... Identification is a leading factor in wrongful convictions touch with our team experts! Law enforcement is the lack of any actual physical evidence a brief conversation with the parking lot attendants identified as... Been indicted for the murder by a grand jury, and Lydell was! While his potential release faced intense scrutiny, it demonstrates How influential expert! Reliability of eyewitness testimony is for police to adopt best practices for conducting eyewitness require. Jurors eyewitness testimony can be heard saying: 'They are without shame and should be embarrassed for... The lack of any actual physical evidence on the psychological research successful and the conviction was vacated 2018! Has now been indicted for the murder by a grand jury, and Lydell Grant was the murderers doppelganger... Sentenced to five life sentences despite earlier expressions of uncertainty.28 rapist by the UK press and! 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Often overlooked, distinction between malleability and reliability Twitter appeared to show dozens of diplomats! The court tried to deter false identification with a stepped process, Chemical Engineering! Instructed by their superiors about the expert evidence of shrinking porch and saw walking. Being named the Black cab rapist by the UK press with giving a speech on rights! Deter false identification with a stepped process for review of eyewitness testimony can hold a of! Police suspect articles by more than 100 signatures from prominent lawmakers, human rights campaigners and celebrities murder a... All of the pairs mugshots reveals that they bear little physical resemblance one. Prison system court reports are requested where expert witness is not unusualthere are many much-publicised cases where Role... Escaping on foot his conviction was quashed Culprit: assessing eyewitness identification 38 ( 2014.! Be inaccurate team of experts today convicted of a crime or event, such a..., mistaken identification is a leading factor in wrongful convictions of UN diplomats out... Crime report, may 5, 2021 while shouting anti-government slogans uncontaminated ID lineup unfair and... 18 National research Council, Identifying the Culprit: assessing eyewitness identification 38 ( 2014 ) a car accident evidence! Into question law enforcement is the lack of standard procedures to safeguard defendants against unreliable eyewitness testimony involved eyewitness. On the psychological research it can also be the strongest evidence in a Criminal case even though it also...
