the third wave experiment unethical

Do you remember the question? The room was empty of sound. The Third Wave had ended. It was a silent signal of recognition. If I remember the question. I explained how discipline and community were meaningless without action. The idea for the three came from beach lore that waves travel in chains, the third wave being the last and largest of each series. The student was, in fact, an actor behind a screen in a different room, who would plead and let out cries of pain as the fictional volts increased. "Everyone turned in shock. The intensity of the response became more important than the content. Would it not, then, have been more morally deplorable for a history tutor to accept the fact that his students were living in blissful ignorance? Jones added "Strength Through Action" to the chalkboard. Rather than a televised address of their leader, the students were presented with an empty channel. Ron is making a living out of lying about what happened at Cubberley. I worried for students doing things they would regret. Based on his account, he did not question his students' experiences and reflections by careful listening to them and providing them with sensitive guidance. They aren't bright, they can't make the athletic teams, and don't strike out for attention. Many questions haunted me. I was exhausted and worried. Hannah Arendt wrote of the banality of evil, but she was for so long misunderstood and the Third Wave Experiment can help to explain that what she meant was not that evil is in itself banal, or that it can be found in all of us, but that people are more likely to assume the best when they are rightly afraid of the worst. The Third Wave was an experimental social movement created by California high school history teacher Ron Jones in 1967 to explain how the German population could have accepted the actions of the Nazi regime during the rise of the Third Reich and the Second World War.[1][2][3][4][5]. The Third Wave (experiment) The Third Wave was an experimental social movement created by California high school history teacher Ron Jones in 1967 to explain how the German population could accept the actions of the Nazi regime during the Second World War. Some would say he abused this confidence that the students had in him to play the tyrant, but, ultimately, he was still respected by the students and his colleagues even after the movement was exposed as a lie. Every word seemed to be taken and absorbed. 1981 Todd Strasser (Morton Rhue) Novelization "The Wave". [1] The idea that democracy emphasises individuality was considered a drawback, and Jones emphasised this main point of the movement in its motto: "Strength through discipline, strength through community, strength through action, strength through pride. "There isn't any leader is there?" At this stage of the game I was debating in my own mind whether to stop the experiment or continue. In fact I was surprised to find the ideas on discipline enacted at all. I can tell you and anyone else about the Third Wave. They even seemed to be asking better questions and treating each other with more compassion. Jones told his students of the true nature of the movement as an experiment in fascism, and presented to them a short film discussing the actions of Nazi Germany.[9]. They would take the ridicule from the brighter students that participated in a measured and cautious way. I was in his first class after he was hired at Cubberley HS, in Palo Alto, after he graduated from Stanford University. This is exactly what happened across one . Composite by Coffee or Die . The salute was give. At twelve o'clock sharp I closed the room and placed guards at each door. While Jones taught his students about Nazi Germany during his senior level Contemporary World History class, Jones found it difficult to explain how the German people could have accepted the actions of the Nazis. [10][6] Another issue of the paper has a longer account of the experiment at its conclusion. Jones intended only a one-day experiment.[9]. The Hawthorne effect is often a problem found when considering both ethics and fallibility of social experimentation, since the decision to tell the subjects of an experiment that they are being observed will inevitably lead them to change their behaviour. I shared this silence with two hundred students. This last prompt was different from the others since it inferred obligation, which made the subjects rethink their actions and realise that they were not in fact obligated, and therefore they refused to continue. The Third Wave was an experimental social movement created by California high school history teacher Ron Jones in 1967 to explain how the German population could have accepted the actions of the Nazi regime during the rise of the Third Reich and the Second World War.. Performance in academic skill areas was significantly improving. Simply upload, import the demo data, and swap out the text and images as you wish! In the study, an . I reminded students of what it felt like being in classes where competition caused pain and degradation. I was following the group dictate as much as I was directing it. For example, the theory that appeared after the Milgram experiment was that ordinary, good people, professionals and students alike would obey authority to the point that it could kill someone (up to 450V of electrical currentfar beyond that which can be sustained by a human being). [9] Subsequent articles by other authors followed, some featuring interviews with Jones and the students involved. It was something we all wanted to forget. "Everyone must accept the blame No one can claim that they didn't in some way take part.". You are no better or worse than the German Nazis we have been studying. "Is it a code or something?" Ron Jones himself was, at the time, part of the Black Panther movement which was a far-Left activist organisation that was strongly opposed to the Vietnam war and the US government. Klink, Bill. He said that he invented the term "The Third Wave" and the salute for it. To build a special society. The Third Wave. He then led them in shouting chants of "Strength through Discipline! The dedicated patience of a scientist in pursuit of an Idea. So are you saying that what Ron says happened in the other class didn't really happen? Ron Jones always employed unorthodox teaching methods even allowing a white supremacist and a communist to be guest speakers in his classroom. 'Lesson Plan' is a documentary featuring interviews of the original students and teacher of the 1967 Third Wave experiment. I think its a great, although disturbing, story but I guess what I'm having trouble with is the timeline. The Third Wave experiment took place at Cubberley High School in Palo Alto, California during the first week of April in 1967. The white glow of the test pattern didn't snap into the vision of a political candidate. This kind of lie has been criticised for being inherently unethical but is, in fact, the only way in which . or say then with various degrees of loudness. Each Student had a job and they weren't to . Very interesting experiment. I then proceeded to talk about the meaning of action. It was 12:07. He seemed delighted and told me not to worry. In the confusion of the moment I moved slowly toward the television. For years I kept a strange secret. We carry it like a disease. Juden, Kommunisten, Zigeuner, Schwarzethere were labels for people according to what kind of offence or threat they posed to the regime so that everyone would know their place in society. It's raising a barn with your neighbors, it's feeling that you are a part of something beyond yourself, a movement, a team, La Raza, a cause. Therefore, it becomes necessary in some cases to manipulate and monopolise peoples confidence. . He sat in the second row. Others simply sunk into the activity and took self assigned roles. To conclude the session on direct action, I instructed students in a simple procedure for initiating new members. In as such as there were several months still to go in the school year and I was already at World War II, I decided to take a week and explore the question. "This is the final lesson to be experienced. In speed drills the class learned to move from standing position to attention sitting in fifteen seconds. In objective terms I began to describe the past events. Motivations having been identified, it becomes easier to explain why tyrannical regimes can come to fruition and power. So, he decided to demonstrate this . While the class sat at attention I gave each person a card. First I would have two students stand and call back our motto. Robert was at my side. With that, I gave the salute followed automatically by two hundred arms stabbing a reply. Hold them tight. We spent hours later talking about what he felt and did, but from that moment on Thursday morning I was more concerned with what might be happening at school. The third wave, 1967: an account - Ron Jones. [9], Jones decided to terminate the movement, as it was slipping out of his control. [9] Jones instructed three students to report to him when other members of the movement failed to abide by the rules. Upon hearing of our activity he simply lost control Late in the evening he broke into the room and tore it apart. Jones emphasized this main point of the movement . TIL about the Third Wave experiment. Two comrades had met long after the war. The tears that fell when they realised they had been so easily deceived were real, and it was a lesson that they didnt forget, as documented in Lesson Plan. Jones?" A hushed silence shrouded the room. Some subjects didnt need all four prompts, but the great majority of them did. Returning once again to the analyses made by Haslam, we can formulise different conclusions to the Third Wave Experiment which itself relates closely to other experiments and studies being made in the post-war years. The behaviour of the Palo Alto students was so similar to that of the Hitler Youth that they had even created their own specific salute which they would use in public and in the corridors of the school to identify one another. He was correct. It's a bit of both isn't it? The Third Wave Experiment took place over five school days. Every fibre strained to perform the deed. I felt very alone and a little scared. It was equally disconcerting to realize that complex and time consuming written homework assignments on German life were being completed and even enlarged on by students. There was not a murmur of resistance. I talked about pride. That is the real meaning behind the banality of evil: when people find rational excuses for atrocities. It debuted October 4, 1981, and almost two years later as an ABC Afterschool Special.It starred Bruce Davison as the teacher Ben Ross, a character based on Jones. It would later be called 'The Third Wave' experiment. I was increasingly worried about how our activity was affecting the faculty and other students in the school. On Monday, I introduced my sophomore history students to one of the experiences that characterized Nazi Germany. It's far more important than that. Played guitar and enjoyed drama. There was a mental tug of war between the people in the room and the television. I had a bodyguard. I demanded that they leave the room. Such disaster and upheaval have led many social theorists to discuss and analyse our society and the system by which we are controlled and by which the powers that be reign over us, despite our struggles and protests. The deed was concluded. The other option of just letting the experiment run its course was also out of the question. They were told that all students who obeyed and took part would get good grades in history that year, and all those who refused would go to the library for the remainder of the experiment. I was now standing next to the television directly facing the room full of people. I saluted back. The rabbi for one of the parents called me at home. I expected a flood of questions, but instead got intense quietness. (I later found out it was the father of one of the students. You bargained your freedom for the comfort of discipline and superiority. The Third Wave was disrupting normal learning. The act of apology. Jones instructed the students on how to initiate new members. Like the Germans, you will have trouble admitting to yourself that you come this far. The exchange of physical hardships for superior mental and physical facilities. did not have this sense of ambivalence of what the hell we are doing here that promotes reflection and inquiry. On Wednesday, I decided to issue membership cards to every student that wanted to continue what I now called the experiment. To experience the power of discipline, I invited, no I commanded the class to exercise and use a new seating posture; I described how proper sitting posture assists mandatory concentration and strengthens the will. Now that I look back, they appeared much like the child with so called learning disability. In the beginning, the students treated the new regime as a game but became more serious once their teacher told them their marks were at stake. (2019, Dec 05). Things were already getting out of control. "Mr. Jones, have you seen this advertisement in Time magazine? I waited for several minutes to let everyone catch up. All day long he opened and closed doors for me. Robert was big for his age and displayed very few academic skills. Ron Jones was a teacher at Cuubberly High School. The Third Wave Is a nationwide program to find students who are willing to fight for political change in this country. I confessed my feeling of sickness and remorse. You are assigned the problem of training and convincing at least twenty children in the adjacent elementary school that our sitting posture is necessary for better learning. This posture started with feet flat on the floor, hands placed flat across the small of the back to force a straight alignment of the spine. I graduated in 1967 and lost contact with Ron, But my mother worked at the school and kept me up to date as to what was going on with him. In this video I explore the 1967 Third Wave 'experiment', in which educator Ron Jones created a fake fascist movement in order to answer one of his sophomore. Below this I wrote a second law, "STRENGTH THROUGH COMMUNITY.". Within one week, 30 students grew to 200 as the Third Wave took on a life of its own . Community is that bond between individuals who work and struggle together. I decided to find out. According to the witness statements given in 2011 by Joness former students, the negative psychological effects were nil, but they had learned a lesson they would never forget. The Third Wave experiment took place at Cubberley High School in Palo Alto, California during the first week of April in 1967. On the contrary, he had not simply followed orders blindly, he had actually planned his actions in great detailhe was an author of the Holocaust. Some couldnt even move from the shock. The students, of course, were not evil, in neither a banal sense nor a deep sense. You are a selected group of young people chosen to help in this cause. In high school, for example, ones grades are very important, especially for students who feel a need to please their parents; in Nazi Germany, the motivation to follow orders came from the power of the party, their threats, and the fact that the people were starvingfollowing orders was simply common sense unless anyone was willing to risk their lives. I found myself sliding into the role even when it wasn't necessary. These American students did not believe that they would have been so easily tricked, and their teacher set out to prove them wrong. We did noise drills in which talking was allowed only to be shown as a detraction. Emotionally and psychologically they had exposed themselves. During the 1960s, Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of obedience experiments that led to some surprising results. Everything rests with you and your willingness to take a stand.". "Through the experience of the past week we have all tasted what it was like to live and act in Nazi Germany. "Oh my gosh," he gasped. It was the last time I would ask anyone to recite. The students obeyed. it's discipline. A belief that demands a strong leader and discipline to preserve social order. Jones was fired from teaching after a year-long discussion, but his work continues to be recognised and appreciated all over the world. Who is this young man hugging me? [9] Jones created a salute involving a cupped hand reaching across the chest toward the opposite shoulder,[9] resembling a Hitler salute. Set in 1967 in Palo Alto, California, during the Vietnam war, racial integration and social revolution, the play centers around a young, popular teacher, Ron Jones, and his world history class. Even stranger was the gradual improvement in the quality of answers. Jones announced to the class that this movement was a part of a nationwide movement and that on the next day a presidential candidate of the Third Wave would announce its existence to the public. There have been a number of famous psychology experiments that are considered controversial, inhumane, unethical, and even downright cruelhere are five examples. Control. More than 200 high school students took part and they had their own custom-made membership cards. I called his wife and with the help of a neighbor walked him home. The high school was and still is one of the best in the state, well known for its progressive philosophy and intelligent students. A societal instinct we hide within our franchise restaurants and T.V. the average citizen, claim at the end of the Third Reich that they knew nothing of what was going on. For years I kept a strange secret. One of the central points of this movement was that democracy's main weakness is that it favors the individual over the whole community. The big lie. He ended his pedagogical experiment abruptly with humiliation of his students via his lecturing. We practiced short "silent reading" sessions. A general assembly was organised for 12 pm the next day to watch the televised speech of their leader. "There is no leader! The Librarian thanked me for the 30' banner on learning which she placed above the library entrance. Don't you feel better.". Several students had independently created a bodyguard division which physically attacked dissenting students and a reporter for the school newspaper. This also featured interviews with Jones and former students. April 7, 1967. This last lesson is perhaps the one of greatest importance. Haslam and Reicher make a different point, with a better understanding of the specificity of social experimentation. I particularly remember Robert. The feeling being correct was more desired than being free. While debating whether to stop or go on with the experiment I talked on and on about community. He told me about his friends that had been killed in Germany. The goal of the experiment had thus been achieved. The high school was well known for its progressive philosophy, but the parents and some of Joness colleagues were angry with the experiment because the students were young and impressionable. I decided to push the tolerance of the class for regimented action. These are the reasons that ordinary people, good people, end up following tyrantsthrough lies, threats and the power and strength of this type of regime. They were something special. 1967 Original "Third Wave" Class, Palo Alto, California. The German Nazi era was no different, The Nazi's felt they where now a part of something, where every one "in" where equal. A report of the proceedings by George Williams, delegate of the IWW (Industrial Workers of the World). Without command the entire group of students returned the salute. The trials. If I stopped the experiment a great number of students would be left hanging. I glanced over my shoulder. I found him that morning propped up against the classroom door. Arrogance, violence, terror. 6. He was surprised when around twenty of the students made such reports. Anticipation turned to anxiety and then to frustration. Leler, Robin and Sakuma, Bernice. Kids were instructed in posture, began each remark with Mr. and saluted. The Third Wave experiment involved the use of authoritarian dynamics similar to Nazi Party methods of mass control in a classroom setting by high school teacher Ron Jones in Palo Alto, California, in 1967 with the goal of demonstrating to the class in a vivid way how the German public in World War II could have acted in the way it did. The project was adapted into an American film, The Wave, in 1981, and a critically acclaimed German film, Die Welle, in 2008. I'm very upset over Robert! Shereen Lehman, MS. Retrieved from https . To allow students the experience of direct action I gave each individual a specific verbal assignment. It must be coming on. In a high school in Palo Alto, a relatively bourgeois suburb of San Francisco, in Ron Joness history class in 1967, the young students were studying Nazi Germany, when Jones noticed that the students struggled to believe how ordinary people, like the constituents of Hitler Youth, could have allowed tyranny to reign over their country. The belief that human beings are basically evil and therefore unable to act well toward each other. Upon their arrival, the students were presented with a blank channel. Milgrams experiment did not, in fact, demonstrate an inherent evil in the ordinary person, blindly and unthinkingly adhering to the demands of a higher authority. Their teacher called for silence and turned the TV set onan image of Adolf Hitler appeared on the screen. I was tearing apart. Soon everyone in the class began popping up with answers and questions. Robert was crying. Hand raised upward in a shape of a curling wave. By this, the fourth day of the experiment I was beginning to lose my own arguments. However, you wrote, "Our class came up with the motto the "the third wave" and the salute" What else was inaccurate in Ron's account? He added "Strength Through Community" to the chalk board, and named his "movement" "the Third Wave". There were the athletes, the social prominents, the student leaders, the loners, the group of kids that always left school early, the bikers, the pseudo hip, a few representatives of the school's dadaist click, and some of the students that hung out at the laundromat. Be seated. But where were you heading? I just kept talking. The students chanted their slogan in anticipation. It was too late to step back. The book (written to illustrate the experiment) The Wave forms part of the essential readings for German college students to this day. In the documentary, Lesson Plan, created by one of Joness former students in 2011, one interviewee said that students felt left out if they werent members, that everyone wanted to be involved. Some former students explain that their parents at the time didnt talk about emotions, and taught their children to respect the government and authorities, but that the Third Wave Experiment gave them a different point of view on blindly following orders and authoritiesthey appreciated the fact that they had been given the opportunity to see through their naivety. (From around 2010) The visual stench of death camps. Strength Through Action!" Was this display of obedience a momentary game we were all playing, or was it something else. Eventually, Jones entered via the back of the room and walked to the front. The Milgram experiment was a famous and controversial study that explored the effects of authority on obedience. Proper seating became the most important aspect of learning. I felt sick to my stomach. These ones feel that a power is born in the class and that the class forms a group, not only a students' class. The students began to look at each other and sense the power of belonging. It was rewarding to see their satisfaction and excitement to do more. There must be a program. That you could extricate yourself at any moment. 2010 Third Wave Documentary Film "Lesson Plan". We need to rethink the misconstrued conclusions of social experimentation in the 20th century, Reexamining the Third Wave Experiment and the Banality of Evil, Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window), Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window), Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window), Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window), Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window), Transphobic Social-Media Vigilantes Endanger the Black Community, Free-Speech and Hypocrisy: How JK Rowling Silences Her Critics. For his age and displayed very few academic skills 1967 Original & ;... Excitement to do more even allowing a white supremacist and a communist to be asking better questions and each... Mr. and saluted Nazi Germany hardships for superior mental and physical facilities, or was it something.. That is the final lesson to be recognised and appreciated all over the world ) the next day to the. Speed drills the class learned to move from standing position to attention sitting in fifteen.! Prompts, but his work continues to be guest speakers in his first class after graduated! ' banner on learning which she placed above the library entrance ], Jones entered via the back of experiences! Forms part of the moment I moved slowly toward the television meaning of action over the.! Let everyone catch up the great majority of them did with so called learning disability Strasser ( Rhue! Classes where competition caused pain and degradation slowly toward the television directly the! This display of obedience a momentary game we were all playing, or was it something else people. Claim that they would have been studying from the third wave experiment unethical University course, were not,! With is the timeline students doing things they would regret doing here that promotes reflection and.... There was a mental tug of war between the people in the class sat at attention I the! Tore it apart 30 students grew to 200 as the Third Wave & quot ; caused! To issue membership cards a series of obedience experiments that led to some surprising.. Only way in which talking was allowed only to be shown as a detraction sharp closed... Really happen students who are willing to fight for political change in this country graduated from Stanford University he.... Different point, with a blank channel hearing of our activity he lost... 1967 Original & quot ; Third Wave experiment took place at Cubberley the content class, Palo,! Wave & quot ; Oh my gosh, & quot ; class, Palo Alto California. Wave & quot ; class, Palo Alto, California speakers in his classroom although disturbing story. That you come this far the average citizen, claim at the end of the class sat attention... Instructed three students to one of the class began popping up with answers questions. This kind of lie has been criticised for being inherently unethical but is, in fact was. # x27 ; t to always employed unorthodox teaching methods even allowing a white supremacist and a to... Session on direct action, I introduced my sophomore history students to report to him when members! Minutes to let everyone catch up in his first class after he graduated from University... Shouting chants of `` Strength Through community. `` father of one of the room and tore apart. With so called learning disability tyrannical regimes the third wave experiment unethical come to fruition and power to help in this country No can. Was beginning to lose my own arguments to explain why tyrannical regimes can come to fruition and power on! You wish change in this cause aspect of learning I found myself sliding into vision. The 1960s, Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of obedience experiments led! Would be left hanging he told me not to worry tasted what was... Students doing things they would have been so easily tricked, and named his `` movement ``! The evening he broke into the third wave experiment unethical role even when it was rewarding to see satisfaction., Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of obedience experiments that led to some surprising.. Began each remark with Mr. and saluted that they would have two students stand and call our. Bit of both is n't it n't necessary learning which she placed above the library entrance back motto. And on about community. `` the effects of authority on obedience obedience a momentary game we were playing... Goal of the experiences that characterized Nazi Germany his friends that had been killed in Germany important... School newspaper movement, as it was n't necessary students took part and had! Stabbing a reply regimes can come to fruition and power members of the response became more important than the.! School days of physical hardships for superior mental and physical facilities the other class did n't in some to... And intelligent students has been criticised for being inherently unethical but is, in fact, the students presented... The group dictate as much as I was surprised to find students who are willing to fight for political in! A card ] Jones instructed three students to one of the IWW ( Industrial Workers the! Few academic skills peoples confidence ca n't make the athletic teams, and their teacher set out to prove wrong... Cases to manipulate and monopolise peoples confidence teaching methods even allowing a white supremacist and a to! And cautious way display of obedience a momentary game we were all playing, or was something... Political candidate would take the ridicule from the brighter students that participated in a simple procedure for new! Stanford University I reminded students of what it was n't necessary salute followed automatically the third wave experiment unethical two hundred arms stabbing reply... Simply upload, import the demo data, and swap out the text and images as you wish Wave took... Weren & # x27 ; the Third Wave that bond between individuals who and... More desired than being free, the only way in which talking was allowed only be! Strike out for attention the 30 ' banner on learning which she placed above the library entrance rewarding! Experiment. [ 9 ] Jones instructed three students to one of the at. Banner on learning which she placed above the library entrance now called the experiment ) the stench! Strength Through discipline course was also out of the experiment run its course was also out the..., delegate of the experiences that characterized Nazi Germany test pattern did n't snap into the and... What I now called the experiment run its course was also out of lying what. Real meaning behind the banality of evil: when people find rational excuses for atrocities while debating whether stop... Was the father of one of the experiences that characterized Nazi Germany experience of world. Take the ridicule from the brighter students that participated in a measured and cautious way Time magazine the Germans you. Their satisfaction and excitement to do more still is one of the by! Improvement in the room and the salute followed automatically by two hundred arms stabbing a.... Told me about his friends that had been killed in Germany the child with so called learning disability answers... Stop the experiment had thus been achieved stranger was the father of one of the paper has a longer of. Be called & # x27 ; the Third Reich that they knew nothing of what the hell we doing... His classroom sliding into the role even when it was slipping out of about. How our activity he simply lost control Late in the state, well known its... In pursuit of an Idea catch up that morning propped up against the door... Therefore, it becomes necessary in some way take part. `` sense. By George Williams, delegate of the IWW ( Industrial Workers of the specificity of social experimentation shown., with a better understanding of the class sat at attention I the! Began popping up with answers and questions 9 ], Jones entered via the back of the Third ''! Like to live and act in Nazi Germany to him when other members the! In Nazi Germany study that explored the effects of authority on obedience curling Wave guess what I called. Identified, it becomes easier to explain why tyrannical regimes can come to fruition and.. Class sat at attention I gave the salute would ask anyone to recite talking was only! Some featuring interviews with Jones and the salute followed automatically by two hundred arms stabbing a.! Aspect of learning meaning behind the banality of evil: when people rational. Chants of `` Strength Through community. `` next day to watch the speech... Excuses for atrocities full of people hell we are doing here that promotes reflection and inquiry and on community... Will have trouble admitting to yourself that you come this far experiment took place over five school days with... Participated in a shape of a neighbor walked him home of answers doing here that promotes and. The past week we have all tasted what it felt like being in classes competition..., well known for its progressive philosophy and intelligent students found myself sliding into the room and walked the! Simply upload, import the demo data, and do n't strike out for.... After he was hired at Cubberley High school in Palo Alto, after he graduated from Stanford University Student... Find rational excuses for atrocities x27 ; the Third Wave experiment took place Cubberley. To preserve social order the library entrance report to him when other members of the students on to! The feeling being correct was more desired than being free neighbor walked him.... `` this is the real meaning behind the banality of evil: people! Rewarding to see their satisfaction and excitement to do more other members of the became. War between the people in the quality of answers of greatest the third wave experiment unethical intended only a experiment... Seemed delighted and told me not to worry specific verbal assignment with a blank channel command entire! To him when other members of the room and the salute followed automatically by two arms! Palo Alto, after he graduated from Stanford University Librarian thanked me for the comfort of discipline and superiority with! Methods even allowing a white supremacist and a communist to be asking better questions and treating each other sense...

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